Learning with Educational games

Learning is a very difficult and complex task. Too often students in high school lack interest and motivation. They want to be entertained and teachers want to educate them. Every day students spend countless hours on popular technology, social networking, digital gaming and simulations. They clearly prefer to use ICT whether it is for leisure or for learning. To make lessons more attractive and motivating, teachers can use educational software in the classroom. In this regard, it is essential to evaluate the educational content of video games in term of curriculum delivery and pedagogical theories. 

Parents, teachers and students all agree that video games present a very attractive format to students (Virvou et al., 2005, Bougongeon et al., 2011). Any concerns are related to the efficiency of the content delivery in games as compared to traditional teaching. This leads me directly to the provocation: “To whom am I accountable?” When introducing video games as a learning tool, teachers have to be convinced of the educational value of a particular game and its benefits for all students. Simon Egenfeld-Nielson addresses this issue in term of inclusion of the curriculum in different component of the game. He describes the main components as the substantive (the environment in which the game takes place) and the verb (the actions performed by the player). A good educational game requires the content to be included as an essential part of the game. This means that students need to master the learning goal in order to progress in the game. The content has to be integrated in both the actions and the environment of the game. This also defines the focus of the game in terms of content delivery.

Although enjoyment and interest of students might not be the primary goal of using game-based learning, it has a positive effect on student learning. The advantages of using a game format are attraction and motivation. The player is challenged and if the level of skill is adapted, the progression follows the “Flow”theory (Csickszentmihalyi, M., 1990). The main rule for optimal motivation is to keep a good balance between the levels of challenge and skills. A study on the effect of “Flow” on game performance and learning outcomes (Admiraal, 2011) showed that students were deeply engaged with the game.  The main effect of flow was shown to increase game performance but not the learning. The “Flow”describes a deep state of engagement in an activity. It could be linked to Vygotsky's learning theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (Churchill, chapter 3) which demonstrates that teaching occurs within the distance between what the student can do by themselves and what they can do with help. Therefore, it also depends on the relationship between the challenge offered to the students and their skills. Linked to the previous results it suggests that for a positive outcome, educational games have to be adapted to the students level and offer increasing challenge as the student progresses. Student motivation is also linked to a reduction of anxiety levels as a student feels less threatened by correction through technology than by teachers in a normal classroom situation. They also experiment and make mistakes without risking embarrassment or peer criticism (Heckmann et Ownes, 1996). Simon Egenfeld-Nielson also states that an attractive video game needs a good reward, feedback and consequence system. Behaviorist learning theories demonstrate a link between positive learning outcomes and rewards, feedback and consequences (operant conditioning, Skinner in Churchill, Chapter 3). This theory is applied as a basic principle in video games.

We have discussed the value of educational games and their properties in term of attractiveness, engagement and motivation, but a question remains. How does it compare to other educational tools used in the classroom? In their study, Virvou et al. (2005) show that in addition of their motivational properties, virtual reality educational games retain or improve educational effects on students. They observed that students who benefit the most are those who used to be poor performers with other methods and were not easily disciplined in class. Students' engagement and motivation on a task reflects positively on their behaviour and their performance in class. It also suggests that the traditional teaching style did not benefit this particular group of students. They could be from a visual-spatial spectrum of Gardner's Multiple intelligence and the game format is more adapted to their preferred form of learning. Linda Silverman's research is focused on visual-spatial's problems in adapting their learning style in schools with a curriculum which mostly offers linguistic and mathematical teaching styles (lecture and rote memorisation). She recommends the use of visual material and particularly computers and computer games as visual materials better suited for this category of students. 

The consequence of improved behaviours (How do I control my students?) is also discussed by Virvou et al. (2005). He observed that when offered a more motivating learning environment such as video games, students' behaviour improved as a result of increased engagement. Computer game-based learning has also been shown to be a useful tool for helping learners with particular difficulties. They can be used by students in the absence of teachers to work on some aspect of the curriculum that students are struggling with (Holmes, 2001).

Today, as more and more research has converged to demonstrate the value of video games in terms of engagement, motivation and learning effectiveness, their use is still not as wide spread as expected. One reason is the reluctance of parents and teachers to use them. Video games have been badly represented in the press mainly through fear of the effect of violent games on children and adolescents (Bougongeon et al). This doesn't apply to educational games as they are chosen for their non-violent content. Another concern is the effect of prolonged time spent by teenagers in front of a screen and the addictive effect of video games. This adds to the negative opinion from parents but is easily resolved in a classroom context where the time spent on computers is controlled by the teacher. Technical difficulties when using video games has been mentioned in several studies (Virvou et al., 2005 , Holmes et al., 2011, Admiraal et al., 2011). The authors discuss the fact that the educational benefit of video games is hindered by the lack of technical skill while benefits are maximised only when technical assistance is provided.

Video games exercise problem solving and decision making skills which are the higher order skills of Bloom's taxonomy. Therefore, video games can be a practical way to introduce development of these skills to students. In terms of learning, video games have also been shown to improve motivation, stimulate deep learning and creative thinking making them a powerful and meaningful tool for learning. Used for assessment, they provide a context released from the stress and anxiety created by having a teacher as a corrector. They can also be projected to the whole class for a collective approach be a great opportunity to learn and create with the making of games (Y Kagai, 2006). 

Being engaged and motivated is what students want and need from me as a teacher. This can be achieved through the use of video games which provide instant feedback, a feeling of achievement and the possibility to create something original.

References:

Admiraal, W. Huizenga, J, Akkerman, S. ten Dam, G. (2011) The concept of flow in collaborative game-based learning. Computer in Human Behavior 27 pp 1185-1194. 

Csickszentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper-Perennial. 

Virvou, M., Katsionis, G and Manos, K (2005). Combining software games with education: evaluation of its educational effectiveness. Educational Technology and Society, 8 (2), 54-65.

Holmes, W. (2011) Using game-based learning to support struggling readers at home. Learning, Media and Technology. Vol. 36, No.1, pp5-19. 

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences

HBDI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herrmann_Brain_Dominance_Instrument

Linda Silverman http: http://www.gifteddevelopment.com/Articles/vsl/v70.pdf

 Bloom's taxonomy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy

Kagai, Y. (2006) Playing and making games for learning Games and Culture.

Reflection on Sam's story

When I heard Sam's story, the ninth provocation came to mind: “How can I control my students?”.A recurrent theme we discussed across all units in this first semester. Sam is a young impulsive adolescent, and everyone of us will come across a “Sam” in his class at some point. Reflecting on the motives behind his behavior, analysing the classroom situation, researching classroom discipline models finding advice to avoid confrontation with students will be the best way to prepare ourselves for being a teacher.

In Sam's story, one striking observation was the difference of attitude between different classes. Behavioral issues were not noticed in his Wood and Steel class. Was the subject, the teaching or the environment in this class better suited for him? Sam admitted liking mathematics and doesn't seem to struggle with it. Furthermore, he had a good relationship with his previous teacher and was having good results. It could be that movements, group activities and dynamic teaching in the the Wood and Steel classes are particularly appealing to him. As stated by Dr. Shann (in PPLE unit, lecture from Module D), boys thrive in an active, reflective and collaborative environment which could be lacking in the mathematics class displaying an “old fashion” classroom, a teacher staying in her “teacher's zone”, very little teacher or students' movement and limited use of engaging technology. The content might have been good and well delivered, Sam's motivation for the subject remain low. This emphasize how important it is for teachers not to focuse only on subjects but to set a high priority on teaching students. Qualifications in both content knowledge and students management are required: teaching is a profession, not a trade!

Considering Sam's learning style could also help teacher adapt their teaching style. When asked to take the HBDI test, Sam was identified as very strongly in the “D” quadrant characteristic of a holistic, intuitive and visual approach. Therefore a structured and sequential teaching methods would not suit his learning style. From this results and considering his success in visual and hands-on classes, Sam could also be a visual spatial learner (L. Silverman and also Gardner's Multiple Intelligences) characterised by very high visual-spatial abilities (controlled by the right brain hemisphere)and difficulties in auditory sequential tasks (controlled by the left brain hemisphere) such as repeating digits, repeating sentences or telling the day of the week in order. Underachievement in specific tests and difficult behavior during testing can be observed with children having difficulties in processing sequential tasks. Unfortunately, the school curriculum is sequential and not adapted to spatial style as these children despise routine and repetitive tasks but excel in understanding big picture and complex concepts. Linda Silverman offers adaptive techniques including use of visuals and hands-on experiences, presenting the big picture first, giving advanced work before mastering easier work and teaching to compensate for sequential weakness and poor rote memory (by making lists, sight approach and visual imagery, earphones, recording...) and encouraging creativity in all subject areas. Researching learning styles and adapting teaching methods is a continual intellectual pursuit resulting in improved teaching and increased student learning.

Reflecting on different classroom management styles studied in PPLE this term, my first thought were about the kind of teacher I want to be. The teacher in this situation didn't react well by “snatching the paper” out of Sam's hand. Sam was being disruptive and disrespectful of the rules and she became angry. Smith (1999) warn teachers against falling into the trap of pleading or getting angry as it will only trigger student's defiance. He also quotes Alderman' advice (1999) to deal in a very control manner including control of facial expressions, vocal intonation and body language. He also recommends to remind students of classroom rules and discretely clarify for the student what he should be doing. Rules and routines are the foundation of this interventionist model. Babkie (2006) also points out the importance of redirecting students in quiet manner and without embarrassing students or calling attention to them. Most important, showing respect toward students at all time is essential to develop good student-teacher relationships.

From an interactivist point of view (Bichelmeyer) another approach would consist in teaching the student to take control over his reactions rather than allowing his emotions to control him and burst out. If students can control their reactions, it would help them to feel in control of their environment. This contrasts with the interventionist model where reactions are controlled externally (by the teacher) rather than internally (by the student). In Sam's case, it would teach him to be aware of his feeling of frustration and boredom, and to control his initial impulsive reactions through “exit strategies” (count to 5, ask for a time out etc.). Help from the teacher would come from setting up clear guidelines and “warning” signs (words, sentences, encouragement to complete the work) used consistently. If necessary, appropriate extension work can be provided to avoid boredom. This approach would teach Sam to behave in this particular classroom context and would also benefit in other classes or outside school.

Sam's difficult attitude should also be considered in a diagnostician point of view. His disruptive behavior and his inability to sit for long period of time could be signs of ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) or ODD (Oppositional Defiant Disorder). The teacher is accountable to the students and their parents for exploring a suspected behavioral problem. He may require help from the counsellor to introduce steps to “Define the problem, Identify solutions, Reflect on choices and Try to solve problem (easily remember as DIRT, Cook 2005). Intervention requires collaborative efforts between the school, the parents and the students . Solutions can be proposed to the teacher to help coping with a challenging behavior. Harrison (2006) suggests that teacher avoid a power struggle with the student in all cases, and offer alternatives by giving students choices and time to walk away to reflect and choose an appropriate behavior.

When discussing Sam's story with an outside teacher, her opinion was that asking students to sit quietly for a hole hour is a long time for year 9. Sam sat for 40 minutes doing the exam before starting to feel the need to talk and move. For some students it can already be a big effort! She would have give him a choice: either give back his test as it was and leave the room, or finish the test quietly as fast as possible before going outside to relax. Giving him a choice was crucial for her.

From these approaches, four advices appear essential to me:
- Rules are important and must be accepted from the start by both students and teacher
- Teachers must remain calm and respectful at any time toward students
- Students will benefit from being given choices and time to reflect on them
- Learning to understand our own impulsive behavior and alternative approaches to avoid them benefit in the short and long term.

References:

Alderman, G. L. (1999). Views from the classroom: Teacher's opinions of state wide testing programs. Theory Into Practice, 42(1), pp 18-29.

Babkie, A. (2006) Be Proactive in managing classroom behavior. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42 (3), pp 184-187.

Bichelmeyer, B. Interactivism: Change, Sensory-Emotional Intelligence, and intentionality in being and learning. http://www.eric.ed.gov.80/PDFS/ED443810.pdf

Cook, M.N. (2005) The disruptive or ADHD child: what to do when kids won't sit still and be quiet. Focus on Exceptional Children 37(7), pp 3-8.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences

Harrison, L. (2006) Practically speaking: ADHD in the classroom. Special Education Perspectives, 15(2), pp. 3-8.

HBDI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herrmann_Brain_Dominance_Instrument

Linda Silverman: http: http://www.gifteddevelopment.com/Articles/vsl/v70.pdf

PPLE Unit, Module D: http://ucangraddip.wikispaces.com/PPLE+Module+4

Smith, A. Bondy, E. (2007) “No! I won't!” Understanding and responding to student defiance. Childhood Education, 151, Vol. 83, Issue 3. pp 1-7.

Education foundation: Poster

 

10 Tips to keep in mind 

 

1. Begin with what the student knows

Constructivists believe that learners build new knowledge from their own experiences (Churchill et al, 2011). Evaluating students' knowledge and competences at the beginning of a course will help structure and enhance learning.

2. Set realistic expectations

When planning lessons, take into consideration students' level of cognitive development (Piaget in Churchill et al, 2011) as well as their abilities to solve problems by themselves or with help (Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development, Berk et al., 1995). Planning outside the student's ZPD will result in either boredom or anxiety and poor learning.

3. Develop cooperation among students

Plan time for students to talk about their learning, write about it, link it to past experiences and think how it applies to their daily lives. Group work and peer learning is a meaningful, engaging and attractive experience. In chapter 3 of Churchill et al., (2011) Vygotsky's social constructivist theory promotes learning mediated through social and cultural interactions in which students play active roles. Bandura also points out the importance of observing and modeling behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others in learning.

4. Keep students engaged and motivated

Motivation and emotion play a role in the retention of information. Long term memory is also influenced by relevancy, novelty and currency of the subjects (Churchill et al., 2011). New technologies - in particular Internet technologies -  appeal to students and help them to engaged with subjects. Keep learning active, reflective and collaborative and teaching has to be structured, connected and challenging (PPLE+Module+4).

5. Various material suits various intelligences

Learning style preference affects the speed and depth of a students' learning. Assessing students' preferred learning style using Gardner's multiple intelligence, and appropriate teaching tools (video- audio-, movement, ) will help students recognise their own skills and access learning in a way which is easier for them. Use Bloom's and Gardner's grids to design activities and assessment in order to cover different types of skills and levels of complexity.

6. Be aware of the pressure on students

The type of pressures learners undergo at high school during teenage years are numerous. Be aware of these and help students enhance their self-perceptions especially when these are negative (Krause et al., 2010). Keep in mind possible difficulties that some students may be (or have been) going through at home or in the past as these can affect their social and emotional development and interfere with their learning (discussion in STS Science Tutorial).

7. See that the students basic needs are satisfied

Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs (Churchill, 2011). People need to satisfied the lowest level of needs before feeling the need to satisfy the level above going through 4 levels before reaching the highest level of need. Learning and students' development would therefore be affected if basic needs are not satisfied. Teachers must recognise a lack of basics needs and look for solutions to improve the situation.

8. Respect everyones culture and background

A child's learning and development is mediated through language and cultural tools. Teaching should be inclusive and culturally appropriate (Vygotsky in Churchill et al., 2011). However, teachers also have a role in helping students surpass their cultural conditioning and become world citizens.

9. Move from simple to complex

Giving students the opportunity to master simple concepts first before applying more complex ones will guide them to higher degree of thinking as defined in Bloom's taxonomy. What one student finds simple, another may find complex. Therefore, offering different level of difficulty when designing tasks and assessments is essential. However, the curriculum always offers the “bottom levels of Blooms' taxonomy” (Remember/Understand/Apply) and teachers must include higher degree of thinking in their teaching (Analyse/Evaluate/Create, from Ed Foundation, Module D, pt 2).

10. Reward learning with praise

A verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment improves the chance for students to retain the material or to repeat good behavior. Giving prompt feedback will help them to understand what they know and don't know and how to assess themselves (B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning in Churchill et al., 2011).

References:

Churchill, R., Ferguson, P., Godinho, S., Johnson, N. F., Keddie, A., Letts, W., Mackay, J., McGill, M., Moss, J., Nagel, M. C., Nicholson, P., and Vick, M., 2011, Teaching: Making a Difference, Chapter 3, John Wiley & Sons Australia

Krause, K.L., Bochner, S., Duchesne, S., and McMaugh, A. 2010, “Social, Emotional and Moral Development” Chapter 3 in Educational Psychology for Learning and Teaching 3rd Edition, pg. 98-146, Cengage Learning Pty Limited

Berk, L & Winsler, A. (1995). "Vygotsky: His life and works" and "Vygotsky's approach to development". In Scaffolding children's learning: Vygotsky and early childhood learning. Natl. Assoc for Educ. Of Young Children. pp. 25–34

PPLE+Module+4 : http://ucangraddip.wikispaces.com/PPLE+Module+4

Gardner's multiple intelligence : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences

Bloom's taxonomy : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy

Ed Foundation, Module D, pt 2 : http://ucangraddip.wikispaces.com/Ed+Foundations+Module+D+pt2

Am I ready to teach?

Comment on Lizzie's post: Stan's scenario

Hi Lizzie,

In your post you have discussed the reasons behind the formation of 'gangs'. I would like to comment on this subject as I just read a very interesting article from the Australian Institute of Criminology on gangs in Australia: “Young People and Gangs” (Perrone S, 2000). As you have mentioned, the coexistence of two communities (the old and the new Australian), the desire to be accepted by peer group, the absence of parents and their lack of involvement in the school and homework have influenced the students to seek support outside the house. In a gang membership, they will find a form of social status, identity, security, respect and compensation for the lack of support. 

Stan associates these youth groups with 'gangs'. The term 'gang' refers to highly structured youth organisations known in the United States. Its relevance for Australian youth groups is discussed in the paper mentioned above. These groups are formed in big suburban areas of Sydney or Melbourne, similar to Stan's school area and they are based on ethnicity or preferred activities. They are sometime involved in illegal activities but these remain minor (drug dealing, burglary, robbery and theft) and often prompted by boredom or peer pressure. Adolescents need organised social play like sport and physical activities as a break from school and a buffer from stress (Krause chapter 3 page 131). Lack of organized structure results in the problems just mentioned. Public concerns have been raised regarding the proliferation of youth groups in Australia. They are fueled by media reinforcing the ethnic character of their criminal activities. However, the term 'gang' as used to describe highly organized criminal American groups does not be apply in the Australian context.

What could Stan do in the context of his school? The school needs to include cross-cultural and multicultural programs in its curriculum. Inclusion of anti-racist, anti-violence strategies and conflict resolution should be established in order to assure students safety and security in the school. Students would also benefit from individual and group support as well as development of extra-curricular activities such as after school programs or recreational outlets.

Reconciliation projects also promote diversity of culture and opportunity to know each other at a personal and group level. Kerrie Heath on her lecture (Lecture J, April 21, 2011) gave us an excellent and inspiring example of a program she has developed aiming to include students perceived as “scary” in the community by organising Tai-chi classes with people from the community and lunches for the workers of the nearby construction site.

Stan would definitely benefit from a UC PD course!



References:

Perrone S, White R. (2000). Young people and gangs. http://www.aic.gov.au/documents/0/F/B/%7B0FB12D31-3769-4558-BC5F-6AA519D3831F%7Dti167.pdf

Krause Chapter 3: Social, Emotional and moral development. p. 98-146

Heath K. (April 21, 2011) Lecture J3.

Lizzi's post on Stan's scenario: http://lizzythamm.wordpress.com/2011/04/20/education-foundations-assignment-1-post-2/

Max's scenario

Student: Max

Year: 9

Age: 15

Class: Math

Scenario:

On Monday the 7th of March 2011 Max attended his Math class during third period. This class usually runs for a time-period of an hour and fifteen minutes. During this class the students were given their first exam of the year on their first study focus of Pythagorus Theorem. The exam was to run silently in class for the hour duration. Approximately forty minutes into the exam, Max with two questions left began to feel restless and started making conversation with the student next to him. The teacher provided Max with a first warning, asking him to remain silent. Max after a couple of minutes began talking again prompting the teacher to walk over standing next to Sam. The teacher then took the exam paper off the table whilst saying, ‘excuse me Max!’ Max stood up and then snatched the exam paper back off the teacher saying ‘Yes, excuse you miss!’ The teacher asked Max to sit down and told him she knew where he was up to on the exam and wouldn’t mark any further work he completed. Max getting upset and angry swept up his belongings kicked back the chair so it fell over pushing desks out of his way as he left the classroom. After this event occurred the teacher spoke to his parents about the incident.

Additional informations:

About subjects:

Max likes his metal and wood work classes the most because of the teachers. Teachers in these two classes are more laid back, let the students talk more but still make sure all work by students is completed. Current Woodwork teacher is Max’s favourite teacher of all, to date. 

Max likes environments with plenty of movement, walking around the class talking to other students, very collaborative, using hands for majority of work, loud environment, noisy, more interaction and more one on one time with the teacher, very practical based subjects.

About teachers:

He likes teachers who are more ‘laid back’ and ‘chilled’.Max likes the content of all his subjects but dislikes some classes due to the teachers.Max talked about his experiences in math class in his last semester of year 8. His teacher was a young male who was also Max’s Pastoral Care teacher. Max felt he understood his needs more and often helped Max more collaboratively in class than his current teacher does. Max noted this teacher did this with most students. His year 8 Max's teacher also quite often used the interactive white board in class. Although there was still very little group work and class discussion. In this class Max’s two end test results reflect his academic achievement in this class, the grades were 86% and 98%.

About Math:

Max explained that he liked the subject of Maths and gets extra tutoring outside of school. As such he often finds that he understands ideas, equations and formulas quickly and manages to get work done quicker than others. The teacher does not set extra work for those who have worked quickly so Max often finds himself sitting with not much to do. This is when he becomes bored and talks and begins to disrupt others. Max feels at times he is not challenged enough within his class (could be attributed to tutoring and learning more)

Max takes a laptop to school but only gets to use it in English class. Likes using his laptop but also likes working from the text book. He always has his phone in his pocket and all equipment is to be provided by the students. There are no bags allowed in the classroom. 

 

Classroom Rules: 

No talking 

No standing up and walking around the classroom

One person speaks at a time 

No throwing things

Comment: 

To preserve anonymity, all names have been changed.

Comment on Sirtimothy's post: "Wayne and the Brain"

Hi Sir Timothy

This is a great post! You've covered so much already, I am not sure there is much left to say! But since we are all starting to agree that teaching is a profession and an intellectual pursuit, and teaching students is as important as teaching subjects, I will focus on Wayne's students' behavior and look for possible solutions to improve their learning conditions.

Wayne needs to worry about his students who are distracted and tired. Maslow's pyramid of need (Churchill, Chapter 3, p78) suggests that if the basics human needs are not met, the highest levels of need can not be attained. Therefore, lack of sleep and constant tiredness will interfere with development and learning. The reason for this condition could very well be drugs or alcohol abuse, as Wayne suggested. As a future high school teacher, I feel concerned about the subject. How do drugs and alcohol interfere with adolescents' development and learning and what is our role and responsibilities toward keeping our students safe and out of dangerous behavior? The short term consequences of excessive drinking like hangover, headaches, nauseas will make a day at school and learning very difficult, but alcohol have also long term effect on the developing brain as it may affect areas undergoing dramatic changes during teenage year like the frontal lobe and the hippocampus which are associated with reasoning, learning and memory formation (Gogtay et al, 2004). Schools are provided with a large range of resources on alcohol and drug awareness to support the implementation of drug and alcohol education (see:school drug and alcool education ) and teachers are responsible for keeping themselves and their students aware of the dangers of alcohol and drug abuse. Discussing the problem and the attitude to adopt with the school counselor and the principal is also the teacher's responsibility if he suspects that a student is putting himself in danger.

A second group of students is showing signs of anxiety. Anxiety is often exacerbated in adolescents due to a myriad of pressures: social, physical, increased performance at school, exams and focus on career choices. These topics should be discussed in class and students will benefit from group work and peer learning as shown from Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (Wells, 1999). Anxiety could also be the result of too challenging work. Vygotsky points out the importance for students to learn within their zone of proximal development (ZPD, see Churchill, Chapter 3, p77). If the challenge is too low, the students are bored, but if the challenge is too high, it would result in anxiety and lost of engagement. Differentiating learning experiences and proposing choices of tasks will help to keep students within their ZPD (Churchill, Chapter 7, p 208).

Wayne should always remember that “the adolescent brain is a work in progress” and that nurturing this development is as important as their academic achievement (Churchill, Chapter 3, p88).


Reference: 

Gogtay et al, (2004) Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science of the USA 101(21):8174-8179.

Churchill et al, (2011) Teaching, making a difference. Chapter 3 and 7.

Wells et al. (1999) Dialogic inquiry: Toward a sociocultural practice and theory of education. Cambridge University Press, New York. 

School drug and alcool education: http://www.edna.edu.au/edna/go/schooled/school_theme_pages/drugs

Wayne and the Brain:  http://sirtimothy.wordpress.com/2011/04/06/wayne-and-the-brain/

Why we shouldn't miss our ELPC G1 Tutes!

What do parents think?

With the 3rd provocation in mind “To whom am I accountable?”, I am thinking about an important player in the implementation of video games in the classroom: parents. So, what do parents think about using video games in the classroom?

Despite the findings showing that video game-based learning improves students motivation and stimulates deep and creative learning, the perception of parents is often negative and their opinions greatly influence the decision to use them in a classroom setting. In order to understand the reasons behind these beliefs, a study has been conducted based on a survey about video games involving 858 parents of secondary school students in Flanders (Bourgonjon, 2011).

The survey reveals that:
- the majority of parents had no experience with video games and this lack of experience resulted in a diminished belief in the learning opportunities offered by video games and little confidence in their choice as a pedagogical tool.
- parents believe in both positive and negative effects of video games. They believe there is some truth in the negative messages portrayed by the media and are displeased with the content of certain video games. However, they also believe the games offer some learning opportunities and children favor their use in the classroom but these idea is not always supported by the teachers.

These findings are important for teachers to keep in mind when proposing to parents the use of video games as a learning tool. For parents, we need to help develop their understanding of the potential learning opportunities offered by video games. We could achieve this by gathering specific information regarding the learning opportunities from different sources while at the same time providing an opportunity for hands-on experience with educational video games.


References:

Bourgonjon, J. Valcke, M. Soetaert, R. de Wever, B. Schellens, T. (2011) Parental acceptance of digital game-based learning. Computers & Education Vol. 57 pp1434-1444.

Games for learning assistance

In this post, I will discuss a very interesting application for the use of video games in helping students with special needs. In his paper, Wayne Holmes (2011) followed a group of young children between 8.5 and 10.5 years of age with severe literacy difficulties, all with a reading age more than two years below their chronological age. He studied the effect of a literacy program, based on a video game called Catch Up Literacy, to support their literacy development at home.

The author found that students really liked the gaming approach, the graphics and animations, the feedback and the challenges of beating their best time. Parents appreciated the benefit of being able to support their child's learning as well as the quality time spent with their child. However, most of the parents did not use the guide and complained about the lack of instruction and the the loss of interest from the children after the novelty had worn off - mainly because the children played the game randomly instead of following the order recommended in the user guide or because they repeated the games that they found easy and then lost interest.

The latter observations can be explained in light of the findings presented in my first 2 posts (“A good game” and “Go with the flow”). To keep the player motivated, the task has to be challenging but achievable. If the task is beneath their capability, the player becomes bored but if it is beyond their capability, the player fails and gives up. This points out the importance of good game design in order to maintain students' engagement and motivation.

These findings open new horizons for the potential of video games in supporting students who need individual remedial learning by creating a structure at home that both parents and children find enjoyable.


References:

Holmes, W. (2011) Using game-based learning to support struggling readers at home. Learning, Media and Technology. Vol. 36, No.1, pp5-19.

Fighting Mr. X

Competition can be used in the classroom to enhance motivation, excitement and involvement of learners in their activity. However, research has shown the possible negative effects of competition on human interactions including less effective communication within the cooperative team and decrease of overall performance gains as well as interpersonal relationships (Johnson, Johnson and Maruyama, 1983).

This paper (Yu, 2003) explores the possibility of educational video games (in this case a Monopoly-like video game named “Joice”) to offer anonymity or physical separation while interacting within a networking system and their effects on classroom atmosphere and group processes. Pairs of students were set to compete either face-to-face, separated by at least 15 feet but aware of the name of their competitors or in an complete anonymous setting where the pairs of students did not know the names of the competing pair. After the game, they were asked to answer a survey exploring their perceptions of the classroom climate and the group process. The results of the survey showed that anonymity and reduced proximity minimized in-group process losses associated with face-to-face competition and increased teammate interactions and good communication within the group.

The implications of these results are particularly important for educational game designers as it suggests that anonymity is a useful feature in the design of the games. It also underlines the positive and negative aspects of competitive environment in education as well as the effect of anonymity on students communication in a social networking environment.


References:

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Maruyama, G. (1983). Interdependence and interpersonal attraction among heterogeneous and homogeneous individuals: A theoretical formulation and a meta-analysis of the research. Review of Educational Research, 53, 5-54.

Yu, F.Y. (2003). The mediating effects of anonymity and proximity in an online synchronized competitive learning environment. J.Educational Computing Research, Vol. 29(2) pp153-167.

Go with the "flow"!

I found the next article (Admiraal, 2011) very relevant not only in terms of video games as a learning tool but also as a source of motivation and engagement in any educational activity. It refers to the concept of 'flow'  defined by Csickszentmihalyi in 1990 as “a state of deep absorption in an activity that is intrinsically enjoyable”.

One of the main problems of today's high school students is their under achievement due to boredom or disengagement from learning process. So, how do we engage and motivate our students to maximise the learning experience?

Flow occurs when there is a balance between challenge and skills. However, this balance is easily disrupted resulting in either anxiety (high challenge, low skills) or boredom (low challenge, high skills).

The concept of Flow (Csickszentmihalyi, 1990): 

The effect of flow on game performance and learning outcomes was studied on secondary school students using a computer game about medieval Amsterdam called “Frequency 1550” (Admiraal, 2011).  The study showed that students were deeply engaged with the game, but sometimes were distracted by solving problems related to technology and navigation.  The main effect of flow was shown to increase game performance but not necessarily their learning outcome (as measured against level of knowledge of medieval Amsterdam).  Learning outcomes were influenced by distractive activities and team competition: when students were less distracted, they were more engaged with group competition and therefore increased their learning  outcome.

The implication for using educational computer games is that the concept of flow is directly related to increased motivation and concentration but its effect on learning outcome depends on the level of distraction and involvement in group competition . However, the experience of flow being enjoyable, it is likely to be repeated and this concept by itself is worth being explored in terms of increasing motivation and engagement in education.


Reference:

Admiraal, W. Huizenga, J, Akkerman, S. ten Dam, G. (2011) The concept of flow in collaborative game-based learning. Computer in Human Behavior 27 pp 1185-1194.

Csickszentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper-Perennial.

A good game

My topic for this second series of posts is educational video games. I'd like to explore different aspects of them, from the pedagogical benefits to problems we may encounter while using video games in the classroom.

My first paper ( What makes a good learning game? By Simon Egenfeldt-Nielson) discusses the different components of video-games and the essential qualities we have to look for in a good learning game. The author describes the two essential components of a video game as the substantives and the verbs. The substantives are what you see. It makes up the story and the environment. The verbs are what you do in the game. They are about making decisions and seeing the consequences in the form of feedback and rewards system regulated by the rules of the game.

Three factors are essential for a good design:
- Integration: learning is an essential part of the game. It means that students need to master the learning goals to succeed. Curriculum should be integrated in both the environment (the substantives) and the actions (the verbs).
- Motivation: the advantages of using a game format are attraction and motivation. It is used to engage and attract students interest and requires a good rewards, feedback and consequences system. The player is motivated when challenged and the progression follows the “flow”theory (see post 2: Go with the “flow”!)
- Focus: this part relates to the meaning of both verbs and substantives. The learning experience can be integrated within the setting of the game (the substantives) but if it is not integrated within the verbs, the focus of the learning experience will be lost.

I believe this article points out essential fields that we as teachers have to take into consideration when looking at the pedagogical value of a learning game. The integration of the curriculum in both the setting and the actions is as important as the motivation and the engagement values of the game.

A beautiful example is shown in the following video where a teacher guides his students through the setting of a video game in order to engage them, motivate them and stimulate their creativity resulting in a better quality writing.

Reference:

Elearn magazine: What makes a good learning game? By Simon Egenfeldt-Nielson.

Youtube: Creative writing with computer games

Module B: Human development

Scenario: Anne (2)
Anne couldn’t believe her luck when her former school invited her back to fill in a maternity leave position. Seven years on and she is now a permanent teacher at this old private college and about to embark on an overseas exchange for a year. The school has a significant boarder population with students drawn from the city and rural areas. Anne has developed a reputation as a great teacher, with her students achieving high grades and routinely making the top 10% of the state / territory cohort. Similarly her International Baccalaureate students have achieved outstanding results. Anne is looking forward to her travels and is excited about bringing back new ideas from overseas, as well as a little personal travel. Recently Anne’s school has opened a boarding house for rural Aboriginal Students, upon her return Anne will be taking on the role of coordinating this equity initiative. She has enjoyed teaching the students in this program for the last year. While it does entail extra work in preparing work to support the students and after school tutoring, she finds it very rewarding. Ann is hoping to develop some ideas on her study tour of Canada about how to help students from different cultural backgrounds develop empathy and understanding for each other, and learn from each others experiences and ways of viewing the world.

In this blog I am referring to the theories learned in the Module B and to the 8th provocation: "To what extend is teaching an intellectual pursuit?"

Anne has invested a lot of time and energy in establishing a boarding house for rural Aboriginal students. One of her main concern is to be able to cater for the different populations of students in the school. The goal of her trip to Canada is to gather information about different cultures and values and their implication in teaching and learning in the classroom. She also would like to learn more about how Canadian Indians are integrated in school and how the Canadian school system has recovered from the Canadian Indian residential school system (see article:Canada apologizes for 'killing the Indian in the child). She is particularly concerned about making her teaching meaningful for Aboriginal students and promoting good relationships between students from different background in order to maintain a positive and stimulating learning environment.

The historical similarities between Canada and Australia when it comes to inclusion of indigenous students in a strong western dominant culture is particularly relevant for Anne. The goal of her study tour is to build extra- knowledge and understanding of multiculturalism in a social constructivism manner. Canada is recovering from the failure of the forced attempt to assimilate Aboriginal People in Canada into European-Canadian society with compulsory boarding school. Following the closure of the schools in the 1960s and the official government apologies, many school in Canada have integrated Native studies including Aboriginal cultures, crafts languages, spirituality, knowledge of nature, and tours to indigenous heritage sites (Wotherspoon, R. 2006).

During adolescence, students undergoes huge psychological and social development involving the search of their identity and their place in the society (Erikson's stages of psychosocial development: Identity versus confusing, Krause chapter 3, page 110). Students' search of their self strongly depends on the social context of the individual, and adolescents are very sensitive to feedback from others and to comparison with others (Harter, Krause chapter 3, page 106) . A multicultural context can have a positive and enriching impact on the building of the students' identity but it can also be a challenge for Aboriginal students living in a boarding school separated from their families and their culture. This situation is also found in boarding schools in Canada, where students are often separated from their families and communities located in remote areas away from cities' high schools. Activities increasing empathy and perspective-taking skills are necessary to promote prosocial behaviour. It could be approach in a social constructivist manner (Piaget and Vygotsky) through conversations or shared problem solving tasks or activities. The feeling of community and collaboration in classrooms increases through offering more chances for students to talk together.                                                                   
Developing a positive self-concept is also essential for learning at this stage. Subjects have to be related to their life in order for students to feel valued and engaged. Learning is relevant if it refers to one's culture. Aboriginal students are not valued in a school system based on white middle class value. In order to respect multiculturalism and for indigenous students to achieve development of self-efficacy, the teacher needs to take the role of the culture broker between curriculum and students as it is mostly a curriculum based on western concepts (Aikenhead, 1996). Planning, teaching, and assessing have to be inclusive and culturally appropriate. The link between self-efficacy and student outcomes is powerfully illustrated in a study of indigenous Australian students in which self efficacy beliefs were found to play an important role in school outcomes (Purdie et al, 2000).

Anne's trip  to Canada will be an intellectual pursuit as she will be researching the Canadian education model about positive outcomes of inclusion of indigenous culture and values into the curriculum as well as techniques for developing  feelings of community and collaboration in a multicultural classroom.

References:

Aikenhead, G.S. (1996). Science education: Border crossing into the subculture of science. Studies in Science Education, 27, 1-52.
 

Canada apologizes for killing the 'Indian in the child' (Jun 11, 2008) http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/americas/news/article_1410655.php

Krause ch 3 p. 98-146 : Emotional and moral development.


Purdie, N. Tripcony, P. Boulton-Lewis, G Fanshawe, J and Gunstone, A (2000). Positive Self-identity for endogenous students and its relationship to school outcomes. Canberra. Department of Education. Training and Youth Affairs. 
 

Wotherspoon, R (2006). Teachers' work in Canadian aboriginal communities. Comparative Education Review, 50 (4), 672-694.

How can I engage my students?

Yesterday's lesson was about the periodic table of element, a lesson delivered to year 8 students in their chemistry class. How dry can this be? In the initial lesson on the subject, using lots of tools from her treasure chest, the teacher (my practicum mentor) managed to engage students in the subject and have raise their interest for the lessons to come.

The 2 hours lesson was carefully planned and broken down into 15mn-20mn small activities. She used a backward design and and inquiry based lesson. Starting with an assessment for learning in the form of a quick individual quiz, the following animated discussion demonstrated the initial engagement of the students. A coloring activity was then given to students to identify the different categories from the periodic table and color them in bright colors. Working in group of 5, the next task was to build a time-line using fluorescent paper, pictures and a short documentation about history of the table. The group separation technique (student were allocated a number from 1 to 4 which would become their group number) allowed students from different level to mix, share and complement their knowledge with the intention of developing social learning and community building.

This lesson illustrated beautifully a constructivist approach. During the initial assessment, students raised lots of key questions and subsequent activities were directed to answer some of these questions. Teaching was delivered through collective activities, discussions, hands-on practice, attractive audio-visual material and reading for a maximum learning retention.

It was a good example of a very successful lesson!

Tackling misconceptions

In this video (Veritasium), the author questions the effectiveness of teaching with videos like the Kahn academy's videos (Khan Academy and blogpost ELPCG1, entry4: Forget about Kumon!). He conducted a research to explore the problem.

In the first part of the experiment, students are shown a video presenting a scientific problem. They are then tested on this particular topic (test 1). In a second step, the students are presented with a second video explaining the theory and thereby revealing the correct answer. They are then submitted again to the same test (test 2). The results show that even after being presented with the correct answer, the number of students responding correctly is the same for test 1 and for test 2.

The assumption here is that when exposed to a scientific concept, people have preconceive ideas. They don't pay attention to the video giving a scientific explanation because they think their own idea is correct. They actually end up being reinforced that their preconceived idea is correct.

How can we tackle the problem of misconception? The students would pay more attention if their preconceived ideas were presented in a video. So in a second experiment, the author presents students with the same problem video and submit them to the pre-video test. They then show them a second video containing misconceptions about the scientific concept. The students were then tested again. In this experiment the number of correct answers was double after watching the video with the misconception.

So what happens there? When a scientific video is presented in a clear and concise manner, student believe they are learning, but they actually don't engage with the content on a deep level. They don't realize that what is presented is different from their previous knowledge. But given the opportunity to challenge their preconceived ideas, students were being engaged at a deeper level.

Forget about Kumon!

The Kahn academy (Khan Academy) is an educational video website. It is a free online collection of around 2200 microlectures of approximately 10 mn each on Youtube. The subjects range from mathematics to history, finance, physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, and economics. It also contains about 100 web-based-exercises based on skill level and performance.

Kahn's idea started when he was tutoring his cousin Nadia in mathematics using Yahoo!'s Doodle notepad . One day, he had to tutor his cousin remotely, so he decided to post a video on You-tube. Her response was very positive. She actually preferred the YouTube version than being tutored in person. Five years later, the YouTube-hosted tutorials were scoring a total of more than 35,000 viewers per day.

Kahn is an excellent teacher and his videos are a fantastic collection of clear and concise lessons on a large variety of subjects. They are presented in a way as if you are sitting next to someone taking you through a problem on a sheet of paper.

This is a fantastic example of using IT to aid education. And best of all, it's free and readily available.

Pictures of the 21st century

The definition from http://www.ncreLorg/engauge/skills/vislit.htm of visual literacy is “the ability to interpret, use, appreciate and create images and video using conventional and 21^st century media in a way that advance thinking, decision-making, communication and learning”. This means not only images of objects, but also images of ideas.

In the 21^st century learning, students live in and use an environment which is highly visual. Ron Bleed (http://educause.edu/LibraryDetailPage/666?ID=ELI4001) emphasizes the importance of blogs, digital images and video in a world where literacy doesn't only refer to texts and words but also to digital imaging.

That leads me to the 6^th provocation:

What will (biology) students (from the 21^st century) want and need from me?

The visual aspect is particularly important when teaching cellular and molecular biology. We are dealing with a world invisible to the naked eye, which make it difficult to understand. In his article M. Flannery explores the importance of information visualization in Molecular biology and Genetics. 3D images of proteins are available to all on the Web http://www.ncbi.nih.gov. Software capable of converting enormous quantities of data into images on the Web or elsewhere using a downloadable programming environment (Visualizing Data from Ben Fry: http://acg.media.mit.edu/people/fry/chromosomes/13-icp/) are used to visualize the human genome and represent all information known about chromosomes.

Students need to learn to use or at least to be aware of these kind of information-visualization. They are the technique of the future and they are the only way to analyze large amount of complex data.

The issue of using these kind of technologies in education is that mastering these technologies can be a quite difficult task for students as well as for the teachers. It raises questions of teacher's development as well as combining software education and biology into a curriculum with an already high content.

reference:

Flannery, M. Thinking in pictures. The American Biology Teacher, Vol 68, no 5, p299-303.

Students of the future

The potential for use of IT in secondary education is enormous. Biological phenomena are easily exploited through these approaches to enhance research as well as education. The majority of biological, chemicals or environmental parameters can easily be recorded.

The benefits of computer assisted learning have been shown in many studies (Gardner et al.). In their article (Information technology in biology teaching: challenges and opportunities) Newton et al., discusses the cognitive benefit of using technology in biology. Students benefit from an intellectual partnership between the machine and themselves. The computer is a very powerful tool which can assist the student in the accomplishment of a task. It reduces the chore of processing data, of construction and exploration of graphs from experimental studies. The student still remains responsible for formulating the questions and for interpreting the results.

The effectiveness of using technology are also evident in the use of exploratory or inquiry-based softwares. These approaches are aimed to develop skills used for investigating and the interpreting data and results. Students' skills in decision-making and data-analysis are increased and result in higher level of learning.

References:

Gardener, J., Morrison, H., Jarman, R., Reilly.C., and McNally, H. (1992) Pupils' learning and access to information technology. Belfast: School of Education, Queens University of Belfast.

Newton, Leonard R.(1997). Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 31 Issue 4, p274-281.

Searching for the golden site

The safeguard of the biosphere and sustainable development depends upon strong science research, education, and resources to support the increasing demand for biological scientists and students, as well as the scientifically-literate public.

In recent years ICT development have considerably helped science teachers. By providing a quick and easy access to scientific information, it has help reduce the lag between scientific advance and its inclusion in the curriculum. In addition, it also has broaden the range of educational tools available. Computer learning packages, interactive and non-interactive information websites, communication via the web and collaborative projects, all of them provide an educative potential available to all student in a variety of formats catering for all kind of different learning styles.

Today's problem with using ICT in biology is not anymore the lack of information but the surplus or unnecessary excess of information. Part of student education will be to teach them the skills for selecting, evaluating and organizing information.

Where do we start with good science websites?

In their article, Jack O'Gorman and Amy Gullen (2010, Reference on the Web: Science Blogs and Tweets, http://www.booklist.com/) reviewed several excellent resources for biology teacher and students willing to keep up with developments in science. Networks and aggregators are fantastic sources for locating unlimited information. Since summer 2010, the number of sites assisting to locate good science blogs and twitters has literally exploded.

A network is a “cluster of blogs that group together for a specific purpose”.

Three very usefull networks are recommanded by the authors:

• PloS Blogs (http://blogs.plos.org/plos/) from the Public Library of Science
• ScienceBlogs (http://scienceblogs.com) one of the top science blogging
• Scientopia (http://scientopia.org/blogs/) groups around 25 blogs arranged by subjects including Biology and Environment, Brain and Behavior, Education and Careers, Humanities and Social Science and Politics.

An aggregator is “a directory of blogs, a one-stop shop to look through many different kinds of blogs”. Valuable scientific resources can be found on the following:

• Science Blogging Aggregated (http://scienceblogging.com)covers writing from media organizations, science publishers and scientific organizations like Scientific American, National Geographic, Smithsonian, The lay scientist or Panda's thumb, as well as some bloggers' collective.
• Science Pond (http://sciencepond.com)a twitter aggregator for science topic.

A Vision of K-12 Students Today

Self portrait: a preservice teacher

Comments on Lizzy's Ed Found Post 1

can be found at:

lizzythamm | Just another WordPress.com site

Constructivism in the science classroom

“What kind of teacher do I want to be?”

Certainly not the science teacher who will teach nomenclature, teaching parts of the body, diagrams with legends to memorize and assess students on their capacity to memorize nouns and names !

Thinking of Kerrie's lecture Module D about constructivism and authentic pedagogies and working on my own philosophy of teaching for ELPC Tutorial, it became evident that constructivism was the basis for research but also for teaching in science.

My passion for science came from its connection with life and the world: observing, asking the right questions, finding a way to answer them best, and finally adding my own little piece of knowledge in the big picture.

To keep their interest and enthusiasm high, science should be taught in a constructivist manner by teaching students how to follow a similar intellectual approach:

 Explore: What are the important questions? Observe the world around you, read articles, think about your own experience, about previous lessons...

Construct: Design scientific experiments or projects (individual or collective), research articles in books, magazines, on Internet...

Communicate: Draw your conclusions, prepare written or oral reports, blogs, wikis...

Comment on Mark Thompson's Ed Found post 1

Hi Mark,

I would like to comment on few points from your post:

• In your second paragraph (Will I be allowed to be the teacher I want to be?), I agree that Jane would be limited by the school and department of education's rules and regulation, which is true for every teacher. In the particular context of Jane, I would add that she is also limited by her knowledge of the community as well as the expectations of the students she is working with. Her students are from remote rural community and their culture, their motivation for schooling and the kind of education they need and expect can be very different from what a middle class inner city woman has experienced . In addition she can also be limited by the school resources and style.

• The second point is in response to your point 4: Am I ready to teach?
  In the context of Jane's story, she might have feel very confident after her high academic results and the success of her first practicum placements. She was in a good position for starting her career as a teacher, but was she ready for this environment? Jane's story points out the importance of the teaching environment and the need for teachers to be flexible and prepared for different environment.

• Finally,I would also like to comment on the problems of discipline in the classroom. In his article (Educational psychology in the inclusive classroom, chapter 12, pp 454) Krause discusses the studies from Louden (1985) on the influence of home or school on students disturbed behaviors. If home factors like high level of family stress or socio-economic disadvantage can results in behavioral problems at school, he also identify school-related factors like “inappropriate teacher expectation of students” or “instruction in irrelevant skills” as well as a “lack of instruction in critical skills”. Jane's difficulty to control her classroom could be explain by her lack of experience in rural environment which can lead to inappropriate expectations from both sides and a different view on what critical skills are needed.