Learning with Educational games

Learning is a very difficult and complex task. Too often students in high school lack interest and motivation. They want to be entertained and teachers want to educate them. Every day students spend countless hours on popular technology, social networking, digital gaming and simulations. They clearly prefer to use ICT whether it is for leisure or for learning. To make lessons more attractive and motivating, teachers can use educational software in the classroom. In this regard, it is essential to evaluate the educational content of video games in term of curriculum delivery and pedagogical theories. 

Parents, teachers and students all agree that video games present a very attractive format to students (Virvou et al., 2005, Bougongeon et al., 2011). Any concerns are related to the efficiency of the content delivery in games as compared to traditional teaching. This leads me directly to the provocation: “To whom am I accountable?” When introducing video games as a learning tool, teachers have to be convinced of the educational value of a particular game and its benefits for all students. Simon Egenfeld-Nielson addresses this issue in term of inclusion of the curriculum in different component of the game. He describes the main components as the substantive (the environment in which the game takes place) and the verb (the actions performed by the player). A good educational game requires the content to be included as an essential part of the game. This means that students need to master the learning goal in order to progress in the game. The content has to be integrated in both the actions and the environment of the game. This also defines the focus of the game in terms of content delivery.

Although enjoyment and interest of students might not be the primary goal of using game-based learning, it has a positive effect on student learning. The advantages of using a game format are attraction and motivation. The player is challenged and if the level of skill is adapted, the progression follows the “Flow”theory (Csickszentmihalyi, M., 1990). The main rule for optimal motivation is to keep a good balance between the levels of challenge and skills. A study on the effect of “Flow” on game performance and learning outcomes (Admiraal, 2011) showed that students were deeply engaged with the game.  The main effect of flow was shown to increase game performance but not the learning. The “Flow”describes a deep state of engagement in an activity. It could be linked to Vygotsky's learning theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (Churchill, chapter 3) which demonstrates that teaching occurs within the distance between what the student can do by themselves and what they can do with help. Therefore, it also depends on the relationship between the challenge offered to the students and their skills. Linked to the previous results it suggests that for a positive outcome, educational games have to be adapted to the students level and offer increasing challenge as the student progresses. Student motivation is also linked to a reduction of anxiety levels as a student feels less threatened by correction through technology than by teachers in a normal classroom situation. They also experiment and make mistakes without risking embarrassment or peer criticism (Heckmann et Ownes, 1996). Simon Egenfeld-Nielson also states that an attractive video game needs a good reward, feedback and consequence system. Behaviorist learning theories demonstrate a link between positive learning outcomes and rewards, feedback and consequences (operant conditioning, Skinner in Churchill, Chapter 3). This theory is applied as a basic principle in video games.

We have discussed the value of educational games and their properties in term of attractiveness, engagement and motivation, but a question remains. How does it compare to other educational tools used in the classroom? In their study, Virvou et al. (2005) show that in addition of their motivational properties, virtual reality educational games retain or improve educational effects on students. They observed that students who benefit the most are those who used to be poor performers with other methods and were not easily disciplined in class. Students' engagement and motivation on a task reflects positively on their behaviour and their performance in class. It also suggests that the traditional teaching style did not benefit this particular group of students. They could be from a visual-spatial spectrum of Gardner's Multiple intelligence and the game format is more adapted to their preferred form of learning. Linda Silverman's research is focused on visual-spatial's problems in adapting their learning style in schools with a curriculum which mostly offers linguistic and mathematical teaching styles (lecture and rote memorisation). She recommends the use of visual material and particularly computers and computer games as visual materials better suited for this category of students. 

The consequence of improved behaviours (How do I control my students?) is also discussed by Virvou et al. (2005). He observed that when offered a more motivating learning environment such as video games, students' behaviour improved as a result of increased engagement. Computer game-based learning has also been shown to be a useful tool for helping learners with particular difficulties. They can be used by students in the absence of teachers to work on some aspect of the curriculum that students are struggling with (Holmes, 2001).

Today, as more and more research has converged to demonstrate the value of video games in terms of engagement, motivation and learning effectiveness, their use is still not as wide spread as expected. One reason is the reluctance of parents and teachers to use them. Video games have been badly represented in the press mainly through fear of the effect of violent games on children and adolescents (Bougongeon et al). This doesn't apply to educational games as they are chosen for their non-violent content. Another concern is the effect of prolonged time spent by teenagers in front of a screen and the addictive effect of video games. This adds to the negative opinion from parents but is easily resolved in a classroom context where the time spent on computers is controlled by the teacher. Technical difficulties when using video games has been mentioned in several studies (Virvou et al., 2005 , Holmes et al., 2011, Admiraal et al., 2011). The authors discuss the fact that the educational benefit of video games is hindered by the lack of technical skill while benefits are maximised only when technical assistance is provided.

Video games exercise problem solving and decision making skills which are the higher order skills of Bloom's taxonomy. Therefore, video games can be a practical way to introduce development of these skills to students. In terms of learning, video games have also been shown to improve motivation, stimulate deep learning and creative thinking making them a powerful and meaningful tool for learning. Used for assessment, they provide a context released from the stress and anxiety created by having a teacher as a corrector. They can also be projected to the whole class for a collective approach be a great opportunity to learn and create with the making of games (Y Kagai, 2006). 

Being engaged and motivated is what students want and need from me as a teacher. This can be achieved through the use of video games which provide instant feedback, a feeling of achievement and the possibility to create something original.

References:

Admiraal, W. Huizenga, J, Akkerman, S. ten Dam, G. (2011) The concept of flow in collaborative game-based learning. Computer in Human Behavior 27 pp 1185-1194. 

Csickszentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper-Perennial. 

Virvou, M., Katsionis, G and Manos, K (2005). Combining software games with education: evaluation of its educational effectiveness. Educational Technology and Society, 8 (2), 54-65.

Holmes, W. (2011) Using game-based learning to support struggling readers at home. Learning, Media and Technology. Vol. 36, No.1, pp5-19. 

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences

HBDI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herrmann_Brain_Dominance_Instrument

Linda Silverman http: http://www.gifteddevelopment.com/Articles/vsl/v70.pdf

 Bloom's taxonomy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy

Kagai, Y. (2006) Playing and making games for learning Games and Culture.

Reflection on Sam's story

When I heard Sam's story, the ninth provocation came to mind: “How can I control my students?”.A recurrent theme we discussed across all units in this first semester. Sam is a young impulsive adolescent, and everyone of us will come across a “Sam” in his class at some point. Reflecting on the motives behind his behavior, analysing the classroom situation, researching classroom discipline models finding advice to avoid confrontation with students will be the best way to prepare ourselves for being a teacher.

In Sam's story, one striking observation was the difference of attitude between different classes. Behavioral issues were not noticed in his Wood and Steel class. Was the subject, the teaching or the environment in this class better suited for him? Sam admitted liking mathematics and doesn't seem to struggle with it. Furthermore, he had a good relationship with his previous teacher and was having good results. It could be that movements, group activities and dynamic teaching in the the Wood and Steel classes are particularly appealing to him. As stated by Dr. Shann (in PPLE unit, lecture from Module D), boys thrive in an active, reflective and collaborative environment which could be lacking in the mathematics class displaying an “old fashion” classroom, a teacher staying in her “teacher's zone”, very little teacher or students' movement and limited use of engaging technology. The content might have been good and well delivered, Sam's motivation for the subject remain low. This emphasize how important it is for teachers not to focuse only on subjects but to set a high priority on teaching students. Qualifications in both content knowledge and students management are required: teaching is a profession, not a trade!

Considering Sam's learning style could also help teacher adapt their teaching style. When asked to take the HBDI test, Sam was identified as very strongly in the “D” quadrant characteristic of a holistic, intuitive and visual approach. Therefore a structured and sequential teaching methods would not suit his learning style. From this results and considering his success in visual and hands-on classes, Sam could also be a visual spatial learner (L. Silverman and also Gardner's Multiple Intelligences) characterised by very high visual-spatial abilities (controlled by the right brain hemisphere)and difficulties in auditory sequential tasks (controlled by the left brain hemisphere) such as repeating digits, repeating sentences or telling the day of the week in order. Underachievement in specific tests and difficult behavior during testing can be observed with children having difficulties in processing sequential tasks. Unfortunately, the school curriculum is sequential and not adapted to spatial style as these children despise routine and repetitive tasks but excel in understanding big picture and complex concepts. Linda Silverman offers adaptive techniques including use of visuals and hands-on experiences, presenting the big picture first, giving advanced work before mastering easier work and teaching to compensate for sequential weakness and poor rote memory (by making lists, sight approach and visual imagery, earphones, recording...) and encouraging creativity in all subject areas. Researching learning styles and adapting teaching methods is a continual intellectual pursuit resulting in improved teaching and increased student learning.

Reflecting on different classroom management styles studied in PPLE this term, my first thought were about the kind of teacher I want to be. The teacher in this situation didn't react well by “snatching the paper” out of Sam's hand. Sam was being disruptive and disrespectful of the rules and she became angry. Smith (1999) warn teachers against falling into the trap of pleading or getting angry as it will only trigger student's defiance. He also quotes Alderman' advice (1999) to deal in a very control manner including control of facial expressions, vocal intonation and body language. He also recommends to remind students of classroom rules and discretely clarify for the student what he should be doing. Rules and routines are the foundation of this interventionist model. Babkie (2006) also points out the importance of redirecting students in quiet manner and without embarrassing students or calling attention to them. Most important, showing respect toward students at all time is essential to develop good student-teacher relationships.

From an interactivist point of view (Bichelmeyer) another approach would consist in teaching the student to take control over his reactions rather than allowing his emotions to control him and burst out. If students can control their reactions, it would help them to feel in control of their environment. This contrasts with the interventionist model where reactions are controlled externally (by the teacher) rather than internally (by the student). In Sam's case, it would teach him to be aware of his feeling of frustration and boredom, and to control his initial impulsive reactions through “exit strategies” (count to 5, ask for a time out etc.). Help from the teacher would come from setting up clear guidelines and “warning” signs (words, sentences, encouragement to complete the work) used consistently. If necessary, appropriate extension work can be provided to avoid boredom. This approach would teach Sam to behave in this particular classroom context and would also benefit in other classes or outside school.

Sam's difficult attitude should also be considered in a diagnostician point of view. His disruptive behavior and his inability to sit for long period of time could be signs of ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) or ODD (Oppositional Defiant Disorder). The teacher is accountable to the students and their parents for exploring a suspected behavioral problem. He may require help from the counsellor to introduce steps to “Define the problem, Identify solutions, Reflect on choices and Try to solve problem (easily remember as DIRT, Cook 2005). Intervention requires collaborative efforts between the school, the parents and the students . Solutions can be proposed to the teacher to help coping with a challenging behavior. Harrison (2006) suggests that teacher avoid a power struggle with the student in all cases, and offer alternatives by giving students choices and time to walk away to reflect and choose an appropriate behavior.

When discussing Sam's story with an outside teacher, her opinion was that asking students to sit quietly for a hole hour is a long time for year 9. Sam sat for 40 minutes doing the exam before starting to feel the need to talk and move. For some students it can already be a big effort! She would have give him a choice: either give back his test as it was and leave the room, or finish the test quietly as fast as possible before going outside to relax. Giving him a choice was crucial for her.

From these approaches, four advices appear essential to me:
- Rules are important and must be accepted from the start by both students and teacher
- Teachers must remain calm and respectful at any time toward students
- Students will benefit from being given choices and time to reflect on them
- Learning to understand our own impulsive behavior and alternative approaches to avoid them benefit in the short and long term.

References:

Alderman, G. L. (1999). Views from the classroom: Teacher's opinions of state wide testing programs. Theory Into Practice, 42(1), pp 18-29.

Babkie, A. (2006) Be Proactive in managing classroom behavior. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42 (3), pp 184-187.

Bichelmeyer, B. Interactivism: Change, Sensory-Emotional Intelligence, and intentionality in being and learning. http://www.eric.ed.gov.80/PDFS/ED443810.pdf

Cook, M.N. (2005) The disruptive or ADHD child: what to do when kids won't sit still and be quiet. Focus on Exceptional Children 37(7), pp 3-8.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences

Harrison, L. (2006) Practically speaking: ADHD in the classroom. Special Education Perspectives, 15(2), pp. 3-8.

HBDI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herrmann_Brain_Dominance_Instrument

Linda Silverman: http: http://www.gifteddevelopment.com/Articles/vsl/v70.pdf

PPLE Unit, Module D: http://ucangraddip.wikispaces.com/PPLE+Module+4

Smith, A. Bondy, E. (2007) “No! I won't!” Understanding and responding to student defiance. Childhood Education, 151, Vol. 83, Issue 3. pp 1-7.

Education foundation: Poster

 

10 Tips to keep in mind 

 

1. Begin with what the student knows

Constructivists believe that learners build new knowledge from their own experiences (Churchill et al, 2011). Evaluating students' knowledge and competences at the beginning of a course will help structure and enhance learning.

2. Set realistic expectations

When planning lessons, take into consideration students' level of cognitive development (Piaget in Churchill et al, 2011) as well as their abilities to solve problems by themselves or with help (Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development, Berk et al., 1995). Planning outside the student's ZPD will result in either boredom or anxiety and poor learning.

3. Develop cooperation among students

Plan time for students to talk about their learning, write about it, link it to past experiences and think how it applies to their daily lives. Group work and peer learning is a meaningful, engaging and attractive experience. In chapter 3 of Churchill et al., (2011) Vygotsky's social constructivist theory promotes learning mediated through social and cultural interactions in which students play active roles. Bandura also points out the importance of observing and modeling behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others in learning.

4. Keep students engaged and motivated

Motivation and emotion play a role in the retention of information. Long term memory is also influenced by relevancy, novelty and currency of the subjects (Churchill et al., 2011). New technologies - in particular Internet technologies -  appeal to students and help them to engaged with subjects. Keep learning active, reflective and collaborative and teaching has to be structured, connected and challenging (PPLE+Module+4).

5. Various material suits various intelligences

Learning style preference affects the speed and depth of a students' learning. Assessing students' preferred learning style using Gardner's multiple intelligence, and appropriate teaching tools (video- audio-, movement, ) will help students recognise their own skills and access learning in a way which is easier for them. Use Bloom's and Gardner's grids to design activities and assessment in order to cover different types of skills and levels of complexity.

6. Be aware of the pressure on students

The type of pressures learners undergo at high school during teenage years are numerous. Be aware of these and help students enhance their self-perceptions especially when these are negative (Krause et al., 2010). Keep in mind possible difficulties that some students may be (or have been) going through at home or in the past as these can affect their social and emotional development and interfere with their learning (discussion in STS Science Tutorial).

7. See that the students basic needs are satisfied

Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs (Churchill, 2011). People need to satisfied the lowest level of needs before feeling the need to satisfy the level above going through 4 levels before reaching the highest level of need. Learning and students' development would therefore be affected if basic needs are not satisfied. Teachers must recognise a lack of basics needs and look for solutions to improve the situation.

8. Respect everyones culture and background

A child's learning and development is mediated through language and cultural tools. Teaching should be inclusive and culturally appropriate (Vygotsky in Churchill et al., 2011). However, teachers also have a role in helping students surpass their cultural conditioning and become world citizens.

9. Move from simple to complex

Giving students the opportunity to master simple concepts first before applying more complex ones will guide them to higher degree of thinking as defined in Bloom's taxonomy. What one student finds simple, another may find complex. Therefore, offering different level of difficulty when designing tasks and assessments is essential. However, the curriculum always offers the “bottom levels of Blooms' taxonomy” (Remember/Understand/Apply) and teachers must include higher degree of thinking in their teaching (Analyse/Evaluate/Create, from Ed Foundation, Module D, pt 2).

10. Reward learning with praise

A verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment improves the chance for students to retain the material or to repeat good behavior. Giving prompt feedback will help them to understand what they know and don't know and how to assess themselves (B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning in Churchill et al., 2011).

References:

Churchill, R., Ferguson, P., Godinho, S., Johnson, N. F., Keddie, A., Letts, W., Mackay, J., McGill, M., Moss, J., Nagel, M. C., Nicholson, P., and Vick, M., 2011, Teaching: Making a Difference, Chapter 3, John Wiley & Sons Australia

Krause, K.L., Bochner, S., Duchesne, S., and McMaugh, A. 2010, “Social, Emotional and Moral Development” Chapter 3 in Educational Psychology for Learning and Teaching 3rd Edition, pg. 98-146, Cengage Learning Pty Limited

Berk, L & Winsler, A. (1995). "Vygotsky: His life and works" and "Vygotsky's approach to development". In Scaffolding children's learning: Vygotsky and early childhood learning. Natl. Assoc for Educ. Of Young Children. pp. 25–34

PPLE+Module+4 : http://ucangraddip.wikispaces.com/PPLE+Module+4

Gardner's multiple intelligence : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences

Bloom's taxonomy : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy

Ed Foundation, Module D, pt 2 : http://ucangraddip.wikispaces.com/Ed+Foundations+Module+D+pt2

Am I ready to teach?

Comment on Lizzie's post: Stan's scenario

Hi Lizzie,

In your post you have discussed the reasons behind the formation of 'gangs'. I would like to comment on this subject as I just read a very interesting article from the Australian Institute of Criminology on gangs in Australia: “Young People and Gangs” (Perrone S, 2000). As you have mentioned, the coexistence of two communities (the old and the new Australian), the desire to be accepted by peer group, the absence of parents and their lack of involvement in the school and homework have influenced the students to seek support outside the house. In a gang membership, they will find a form of social status, identity, security, respect and compensation for the lack of support. 

Stan associates these youth groups with 'gangs'. The term 'gang' refers to highly structured youth organisations known in the United States. Its relevance for Australian youth groups is discussed in the paper mentioned above. These groups are formed in big suburban areas of Sydney or Melbourne, similar to Stan's school area and they are based on ethnicity or preferred activities. They are sometime involved in illegal activities but these remain minor (drug dealing, burglary, robbery and theft) and often prompted by boredom or peer pressure. Adolescents need organised social play like sport and physical activities as a break from school and a buffer from stress (Krause chapter 3 page 131). Lack of organized structure results in the problems just mentioned. Public concerns have been raised regarding the proliferation of youth groups in Australia. They are fueled by media reinforcing the ethnic character of their criminal activities. However, the term 'gang' as used to describe highly organized criminal American groups does not be apply in the Australian context.

What could Stan do in the context of his school? The school needs to include cross-cultural and multicultural programs in its curriculum. Inclusion of anti-racist, anti-violence strategies and conflict resolution should be established in order to assure students safety and security in the school. Students would also benefit from individual and group support as well as development of extra-curricular activities such as after school programs or recreational outlets.

Reconciliation projects also promote diversity of culture and opportunity to know each other at a personal and group level. Kerrie Heath on her lecture (Lecture J, April 21, 2011) gave us an excellent and inspiring example of a program she has developed aiming to include students perceived as “scary” in the community by organising Tai-chi classes with people from the community and lunches for the workers of the nearby construction site.

Stan would definitely benefit from a UC PD course!



References:

Perrone S, White R. (2000). Young people and gangs. http://www.aic.gov.au/documents/0/F/B/%7B0FB12D31-3769-4558-BC5F-6AA519D3831F%7Dti167.pdf

Krause Chapter 3: Social, Emotional and moral development. p. 98-146

Heath K. (April 21, 2011) Lecture J3.

Lizzi's post on Stan's scenario: http://lizzythamm.wordpress.com/2011/04/20/education-foundations-assignment-1-post-2/

Max's scenario

Student: Max

Year: 9

Age: 15

Class: Math

Scenario:

On Monday the 7th of March 2011 Max attended his Math class during third period. This class usually runs for a time-period of an hour and fifteen minutes. During this class the students were given their first exam of the year on their first study focus of Pythagorus Theorem. The exam was to run silently in class for the hour duration. Approximately forty minutes into the exam, Max with two questions left began to feel restless and started making conversation with the student next to him. The teacher provided Max with a first warning, asking him to remain silent. Max after a couple of minutes began talking again prompting the teacher to walk over standing next to Sam. The teacher then took the exam paper off the table whilst saying, ‘excuse me Max!’ Max stood up and then snatched the exam paper back off the teacher saying ‘Yes, excuse you miss!’ The teacher asked Max to sit down and told him she knew where he was up to on the exam and wouldn’t mark any further work he completed. Max getting upset and angry swept up his belongings kicked back the chair so it fell over pushing desks out of his way as he left the classroom. After this event occurred the teacher spoke to his parents about the incident.

Additional informations:

About subjects:

Max likes his metal and wood work classes the most because of the teachers. Teachers in these two classes are more laid back, let the students talk more but still make sure all work by students is completed. Current Woodwork teacher is Max’s favourite teacher of all, to date. 

Max likes environments with plenty of movement, walking around the class talking to other students, very collaborative, using hands for majority of work, loud environment, noisy, more interaction and more one on one time with the teacher, very practical based subjects.

About teachers:

He likes teachers who are more ‘laid back’ and ‘chilled’.Max likes the content of all his subjects but dislikes some classes due to the teachers.Max talked about his experiences in math class in his last semester of year 8. His teacher was a young male who was also Max’s Pastoral Care teacher. Max felt he understood his needs more and often helped Max more collaboratively in class than his current teacher does. Max noted this teacher did this with most students. His year 8 Max's teacher also quite often used the interactive white board in class. Although there was still very little group work and class discussion. In this class Max’s two end test results reflect his academic achievement in this class, the grades were 86% and 98%.

About Math:

Max explained that he liked the subject of Maths and gets extra tutoring outside of school. As such he often finds that he understands ideas, equations and formulas quickly and manages to get work done quicker than others. The teacher does not set extra work for those who have worked quickly so Max often finds himself sitting with not much to do. This is when he becomes bored and talks and begins to disrupt others. Max feels at times he is not challenged enough within his class (could be attributed to tutoring and learning more)

Max takes a laptop to school but only gets to use it in English class. Likes using his laptop but also likes working from the text book. He always has his phone in his pocket and all equipment is to be provided by the students. There are no bags allowed in the classroom. 

 

Classroom Rules: 

No talking 

No standing up and walking around the classroom

One person speaks at a time 

No throwing things

Comment: 

To preserve anonymity, all names have been changed.

Comment on Sirtimothy's post: "Wayne and the Brain"

Hi Sir Timothy

This is a great post! You've covered so much already, I am not sure there is much left to say! But since we are all starting to agree that teaching is a profession and an intellectual pursuit, and teaching students is as important as teaching subjects, I will focus on Wayne's students' behavior and look for possible solutions to improve their learning conditions.

Wayne needs to worry about his students who are distracted and tired. Maslow's pyramid of need (Churchill, Chapter 3, p78) suggests that if the basics human needs are not met, the highest levels of need can not be attained. Therefore, lack of sleep and constant tiredness will interfere with development and learning. The reason for this condition could very well be drugs or alcohol abuse, as Wayne suggested. As a future high school teacher, I feel concerned about the subject. How do drugs and alcohol interfere with adolescents' development and learning and what is our role and responsibilities toward keeping our students safe and out of dangerous behavior? The short term consequences of excessive drinking like hangover, headaches, nauseas will make a day at school and learning very difficult, but alcohol have also long term effect on the developing brain as it may affect areas undergoing dramatic changes during teenage year like the frontal lobe and the hippocampus which are associated with reasoning, learning and memory formation (Gogtay et al, 2004). Schools are provided with a large range of resources on alcohol and drug awareness to support the implementation of drug and alcohol education (see:school drug and alcool education ) and teachers are responsible for keeping themselves and their students aware of the dangers of alcohol and drug abuse. Discussing the problem and the attitude to adopt with the school counselor and the principal is also the teacher's responsibility if he suspects that a student is putting himself in danger.

A second group of students is showing signs of anxiety. Anxiety is often exacerbated in adolescents due to a myriad of pressures: social, physical, increased performance at school, exams and focus on career choices. These topics should be discussed in class and students will benefit from group work and peer learning as shown from Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (Wells, 1999). Anxiety could also be the result of too challenging work. Vygotsky points out the importance for students to learn within their zone of proximal development (ZPD, see Churchill, Chapter 3, p77). If the challenge is too low, the students are bored, but if the challenge is too high, it would result in anxiety and lost of engagement. Differentiating learning experiences and proposing choices of tasks will help to keep students within their ZPD (Churchill, Chapter 7, p 208).

Wayne should always remember that “the adolescent brain is a work in progress” and that nurturing this development is as important as their academic achievement (Churchill, Chapter 3, p88).


Reference: 

Gogtay et al, (2004) Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science of the USA 101(21):8174-8179.

Churchill et al, (2011) Teaching, making a difference. Chapter 3 and 7.

Wells et al. (1999) Dialogic inquiry: Toward a sociocultural practice and theory of education. Cambridge University Press, New York. 

School drug and alcool education: http://www.edna.edu.au/edna/go/schooled/school_theme_pages/drugs

Wayne and the Brain:  http://sirtimothy.wordpress.com/2011/04/06/wayne-and-the-brain/